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Nolikan
The Nolikan language (native name: Nolikine carag) is an umbrella term for a group of related dialects of the Khacheric family. The language discussed here is the language of the Ankawidan culture (specifically called Ankawidano carag; possibly Anglicized as Ankawidanian), modern dialects are very divergent and the speakers use this one as a standard. It is also the language of the Acobisa, the Nurkhasibite holy book. Phonology Vowels The vowels /i u/ are always pronounced , but in unstressed open syllables before /j w/ they can be deleted - miyan 'dark' is more often pronounced than . Remaining three vowels are found in pairs of allophones: /e o/ are lowered to before and after . In unstressed open syllables /a/ becomes . Consonants The consonants in brackets exist only as allophonic variants There is obviously some allophonic variation, as described below: #A glottal stop occurs predictably before an initial vowel, e.g. anka 'pure' . It may be considered phonemic or not. # are dental; are laminal alveolars #/s z ɬ/ become affricates after . #/n/ assimilates to a following velar stop #voiced obstruents are devoiced before a voiceless one. Sabxam 'dog (loc.)' is pronounced . However, there is no anticipatory voicing: eļga 'rib' is pronounced Stress When a word ends in a consonant, the last syllable is stressed; otherwise - the penultimate. The exceptions occur in some inflexional forms and are always marked in this grammar. Phonotactics Primary syllable structure of Nolikan is CV©, where /p/ cannot occur in coda position. Geminates are banned; even in compounds they are simplified to simple consonants. Syncope It is an important phenomenon, occurring in many inflectional forms. Wherever three syllables of the form CV-CV-CV© occur, having the same vowel, the middle vowel is deleted. For example the locative of carag 'language' is cargam not caragam. On the other hand, the first person present of zahla 'to answer' is zahalda, because the syncope occurred in the 3rd person but not in the 1st. Grammar Nolikan is a fusional language. Noun Nouns are inflected for case and number. Plurals almost always end in ''-ak'' Nolikan has 5 cases: ergative, absolutive, dative, genitive and locative. The dative marks inalienable possession and indirect objects. There is also an unstressed vocative particle ya, as in ya Esax 'O God'. There is no morphological distinction between nouns and adjectives. Nouns used as modifiers are always in absolutive singular, as in mal karzusa 'sweet kiss', ergative: mal karzusal, genitive plural: mal karzusane. Declensions Declension I – nouns ending in -a - cida 'day' Declension II – nouns ending in a consonant - sabax 'dog' Nouns that end in a stop have ''-ece'' in dative plural and ''-ekam'' in locative plural. Note also the syncope in sabxam. The nouns me 'leg' and gi 'tooth' also belong here. Wherever a hiatus could occur, an intrusive /w/ is added (mewil, giwak). declension III – nouns in vowels other than /a/ - mabu 'grandmother' The noun mek 'people' has its own declension. It occurs in the plural only. Relational nouns Relational nouns are normal nouns gramatically, but they are distinguished by their meanings. Generally, they denote spatial relations. For example, nir means 'up', 'the upper part of something'. Relational nouns in the locative, genetive and dative are equivalents of Indo-European prepositions. Therefore, niram means 'above' or 'about', niro means 'from above' and niriš 'up (as a direction)'. Similarly, ļub means 'lack (of something)' but ļubam is 'without'. Pronouns Possessive pronouns are never used before nouns; the genitive is used instead. Verbs Verbs agree with the absolutive argument of the sentence. There is no infinitive; the quotation form is the 3rd person present tense. Note that in the 3rd person there is no difference between numbers. The verbs presented are representative of the three regular conjugations. They mean 'lead, drink, hurt'. Present Aorist Aorist is used to express things true regardless of time; much like English Present Simple. Past Future Other forms Antipassive is formed by adding augment at the begining of the verb: *Mulumaļ wed mande 'Workers eat bread' **Mulumak amande 'Workers eat (something)' If the stem of the verb begins with a vowel, intrusive /r/ occurs to prevent hiatus. Numerals Other numbers are formed in a completely regular way, by summing the multiples of powers of ten: 2744 is po tehirak xaje tagniyak bir šodak bir. Fractions are formed with the denominator in genitive plural: maxke pehne '3/8'. A few ones have their lexical names like habal '1/2'. Derivational morphology Suffixation is the most common derivational process. Most common suffixes are given below: * '-m' – added to a verbal stem to form name of an agent **kumre 'to listen' -> kumrim 'listener' * '-ļo' used to form names of results of the action : **mospa 'to defeat' -> mospaļo 'spoils of war' * '-sa' to form nomina actionis: **karazo 'to kiss' -> karzusa 'a kiss' * '-d' –forms names of patients: ** juke 'to hunt' -> juked 'game animal' * '-dan' (with '-tan' and '-an' as variants) form abstract nouns: **bar 'worthy' -> bardan 'worth, honor' **toš 'equal' -> toštan 'equality' **wimaj 'strong' -> wimajan 'strength' * '-kar' and '-men' for place names **nuda 'to wash' -> nudakar 'bathroom' **jimre 'to pray' -> jimrimen 'a shrine' **hanwe 'flower' -> hanwekar 'garden' * '-i' ('-ni' after a vowel) forms names of inhabitants: **Yoket -> Yoketi 'Yoketian' **Šilkarya -> Šilkaryani *the same suffix forms names of people according to their age: **šodpo '12' -> šodponi '12-year-old' *and members of collectives: **cuma 'horde' -> cumani 'barbarian, vandal' * '-ade' forms names of materials: **hagala 'cow' -> haglode 'beef' **tolgo 'tree' -> tolgawade 'wood' * '-cin' for diminutives and '-mu' for augmentatives: **pilac 'heart' -> pilacin 'little heart' **bur 'settlement' -> bormu 'town' * '-hob' (in itself meaning 'thing') for inanimate objects: **šil 'beautiful' -> šilhob 'ornament' **ziwale 'to play' -> ziwalihob 'toy' *'''-waš''' forms names of people according to their affinities: ** jego 'hurt' -> jegwaš 'cruel' The most unusual part of the Nolikan derivational system are infixes, used to form verbs from verbs: *'tu' - causative ** jolo 'to live' -> jo⟨tu⟩lo 'to conceive', 'to beget' *'xa' - trying to achieve the meaning of the main verb ** pela 'to hold' -> pe⟨xa⟩la 'to desire' *'za' - inchoative ** xirpe 'to sleep' -> xir⟨za⟩pe 'to fall asleep' *'li' - strengthening the meaning of the main verb ** tiba 'to lead' -> ti⟨li⟩ba 'to rule' *'ni' - end of an action ** jolo 'to live' -> jo⟨ni⟩lo 'to die of natural causes' The only really productive prefix is ku-', adding a sinister aspect to the meaning: * kel 'water' - > kukel 'flood' * šub 'fast' -> kušub 'mad, insane' Nolikan has also many compound words, especially tatpurusas, cf. ''duštisabax 'dachshund' (literally: hole-dog). Compounds with verbs (cf. zala-binat 'sing-girl', 'songstress') and relational nouns (cf. biškawada 'belly-below', 'crotch') are also common. Syntax Nolikan uses typically SOV word order and is consistently head-final. As in any fusional language, the word order is more free than in English. Negation Any word can be negated by using la (al before vowels). To negate a sentence, one adds it before the VP: *Tol '''al Esax zibat 'She does not believe in God' Another negative particle, bano, implies that the information negated used to be true: *'Bano' wimaj en 'I am no longer strong' Questions Yes/no questions are formed by placing ma before the sentence, wh-questions with interrogative mina 'what', mam 'who' czy me 'where'. Nolikan has no wh-movement, unlike English: *Šarbidan mina da? 'What is love?' *Šarnaxil mam mandate? 'Whom did the sharnakh eat?' Subordination There are two subordinating particles, dar for absolutives and dil for ergatives: *Mijil solkel mahe 'Man drinks wine' **mijil dar-mahe solkel 'the wine drunk by the man' **solkel dil-mahe mij 'the man that drinks wine' '' *Axcin arģa 'Boy sits' **dar-arģa axcin 'the boy that sits' Conjunctions Among most popular ones are: *'ahno' 'so': Behar da, ahno la zahlare 'He is dead, so he won't answer' *'bil' 'in order to', 'because': Meljandiyak ruzak bil šarnaxce jimrit 'The Meljanese are evil, because they worship sharnakhs' *'sax' 'but': la nokri da, sax arzu 'It's no hawk, it's an eagle' *'ul' 'or': cetik ul behar 'Free or dead' *'si' 'and': axcin si binat 'Boy and girl' *'ter' 'if': Ter cal la mulutu korja, la mandi 'If you don't want to work, don't eat' Names Every adult Nolikan has two names. The first is childhood name, given by the mother after birth. These names are usually admired qualities or objects: Wimaj 'Strong' or Tehen 'Tiger' for boys; Anka 'Pure' or Hanwe 'Flower' for girls. After their 15th birthday, a Nolikan would choose his adult name, usually conveying a statement: Nokruled 'Hawk-Son' chosen by an emperor to honor one's father, or the name of the prophet,Nurxasib 'Virtue-Peace'. Parents would still call one by one's childhood name. Writing system Nolikan has its own syllabary, based on the Yoketian syllabary, which was created from earlier ideograms. For example the syllable is written using a descendant of ancient Yoketian hieroglyph for ram (ya'ak). Each CV syllable has its own unique glyph. More complex syllables are written using combinations of two or three glyphs, as in maxke, written . Category:Conlangs